Carl Jung

(1875-1961)

Three major themes:

1. Person unconscious is supplemented by a "collective unconscious" consisting of universal images.

2. Spiritual needs are at least equally, if not more important, than basic biological needs ("search for meaning").

3. Introverts try to harmonize inner conflicts into a whole self. Extravert try to harmonize self with social realities.

"Life, so-called, is a short episode between two great mysteries, which yet are one". Jung is different.

Core of Personality

I. Core Tendency: The tendency toward the attainment of selfhood. Selfhood is a balance between the opposing forces of personality and includes both unconscious and conscious material. This process really begins in earnest around the late 30's or early 40's (Jung was 38 when he split with Freud). The self is best conceptualized as the hub of a wheel with spokes going out as opposing forces. Just like the sun is the center of the solar system, so the self is the center of personality. The goal of development is wholeness (and balance), not perfection. The process of achieving selfhood utilizes energy principles and the transcendent function.

A. Energy Principles:

1. Principle of Equivalence (similar to first law of thermodynamics). An increase of energy in one area will be accompanied by a decrease of energy in the opposite area and vice versa. For example, energy moved inward (introspection) takes energy away from external activity. Energy taken from the ego must go somewhere else (such as personal unconscious).

2. Principle of Entropy (similar to second law of thermodynamics). The distribution of energy in the psyche seeks an equilibrium or balance. The ideal state of selfhood is balanced, but not conflict free. This is essentially a closed hydraulic model, except for the concept of the transcendent function.

3. Principle of Opposites. This is best summarized by Hegel's statement that "everything carries with it its own negation". The only way we can know anything is by contrast with an opposite. A partial list of opposites in Jung's theory would include the following:

4. Transcendent Function. This is one of his more confusing concepts. It refers to the integrating activity of the self, the process that joins various opposing forces into a coherent middle ground. (Incidentally, in mathematics, a transcendent function is a function of real and imaginary numbers).

5. Mandala: From the Sanskrit word meaning "Magic circle", this is the symbol for wholeness and perfection, and thus the symbol of the self. The old way of looking at traits was as a linear progression from one to another:

introvert (1) <------> extravert (10)

For Jung, a better symbol is the circle, because any point on a circle can be viewed as either two forces racing apart or two forces coming together. Circles are typically cut into quarters and can be seen as the balancing of the quadrants.

6. Paradoxical Unity: This is the manner by which opposites can be reconciled into wholeness. This is weird, but not without scientific precedent. In chemistry, the Heisenberg Principle of Uncertainty says that we can measure position or momentum of sub-atomic particles, but not both. Goedel's proof in mathematics says that if arithmetic is consistent, then it is incomplete; if complete, then it is inconsistent.

7. Christ as symbol of self: Jung speculated that Christ could be an archetypical symbol of the polarities of self and thus the paradoxical unity which allows us to synthesize the opposites into a conceptual whole. Two ways of viewing Christ as a symbol of self are presented below. 

                               unitemporal (once in time) 

           unique_________________________________________universal

                                   eternal

Good (Christ) Spiritual______________________________________Material (divine) (human) Bad (Antichrist) B. Synchronicity: A relationship between events that is based on meaningful coincidence rather than cause and effect. One of his later (and controversial) concepts, this concept protects the theorist (and therapist) from the twin perils of feeling that everything is due to fate or of falling back on purely causal explanations which take away the mystery of life.

II. Core Characteristics

A. Ego: The conscious, individualistic mind; the center of consciousness (remember that the self is the center of personality). The ego is typically characterized by one dominant attitude (introversion/extraversion) and by one or two dominant functions (think/feel; sense/intuit).

B. Personal Unconscious: This is formed of socially unacceptable mental content that was once conscious but has been forced out of mental awareness by the defenses. Kind of like your personal mental garbage can.

1. Is in conflict with the ego.

2. Contains the complexes, which are unconscious clusters of emotionally laden thoughts that result in a disproportionate influence on behavior (ex: money complex, mother complex, Oedipus complex).

C. Collective Unconscious - Jung's "biggie"

1. Definition: A communal, species memory representing the accumulated experiences of mankind. It is a storehouse of latent predispositions to apprehend the world in particular ways. It is the deepest and most inaccessible layer of the psyche.

2. Origin of the concept. The same themes and symbols show up in all cultures to represent the same concept (mandala --> self, wholeness). Also in deja vu experiences and in dreams.

3. Collective Unconscious and Art: Freud tried to explain art in terms of unresolved unconscious conflicts and the neurosis of the artist. Jung says that great art is an expression of the collective unconscious and speaks to all of us. Example: Freud vs. Jung's interpretation of da Vinci's painting of St. Anne and Virgin with Christ Child.

D. Archetypes - the primary structures of the collective unconscious

1. Definition: An archetype is an inherited predisposition to respond to certain aspects of the world. Just as the ear and eye have evolved to be maximally sensitive to certain stimuli, we have evolved psychologically to be maximally sensitive to certain categories of experience. Must ask what all human beings have experienced. The list is long, but would certainly include birth, death, sun, mothers, fathers, heroes, demons, wise men, etc. Archetypes do not have content, only form. They are not unconscious ideas, rather predispositions to perceive. I will discuss a few of them.

2. Shadow: The shadow is both a part of the personality and a archetype.

a. Part of personality: The shadow is the dark side of your personality that contains the animal (and sexual) instincts. It is the opposite of the Persona (mask) and is the part of personality that is repressed from the ego ideal.

b. As archetype: The importance of the shadow is seen in its symbolic representation by devils, demons, evil spirits, Dr. Jekyll/Mr. Hyde, Darth Vader ("The dark side of the force"), etc. Since "shadow-work" is an important aspect of therapy for Jung, I will discuss it in some detail.

c. How can we get to know our shadow? Through

(1) dreams

(2) fantasies (power, sex, money)

(3) repressions & slips of the tongue

(4) Often, when drunk (I didn't mean it)

d. Why get to know the shadow? Suppressing the shadow leads to a civilized life, but at the expense of spontaneity, creativity, and strong emotions.

(1) We need capacity for controlled anger.

(2) Gives us a healthy mistrust of others.

(3) Gives us a sense of humor

(4) Gives a sense of understanding and forgiveness.

e. Harmful effects of repressing the shadow.

(1) Produces a lack of balance. - Blue Angel movie with Marlene Dietrich.

(2) Shadow projection - can result racial and/or religious prejudice.

(3) Collective shadow/persona interactions: Beware of lack of integration. Look what the Nazis (Aryan Superiority) did to the Jews and we Americans (Manifest Destiny) did to the Indians. Have churches in one area of town, porno shops in another.

3. Persona: The persona is the public face (mask) one presents to the world for everyone else to see. It is in opposition to the shadow and is mostly conscious as a part of personality. Sometimes the persona is referred to as the "social archetype" since it involves all the compromises appropriate to living in a community.

a. The persona is heavily influenced by one's profession. Would you go to a neurosurgeon with messy hair and dirty clothes?

b. Inflated Persona: Jung found that many very successful people equate their entire personality with the persona and become extremely unhappy.

4. Animus: From the Greek word for "mind" (spirit). The male archetype in women. It predisposes woman to understand the nature of man, serves as the compensatory rational inner face of the sentimental female persona, and is experienced as a masculine voice within the psyche.

a. Shows up in opinions

b. Women must integrate the masculine "Logos" (thought).

5. Anima: From the Greek word for "soul". The female archetype in men. It predisposes man to understand the nature of woman, serves as the compensatory sentimental inner face of the rational male persona, and is experienced as a feminine voice within the psyche.

a. Shows up in moods

b. Men must integrate the feminine "Eros" (feelings).

Men and women should do a swap during development. During the first half of life, men should develop the animus (job, career), then become softer in second half of life. Women first develop the anima (work with children), then become tougher the second half of life (go into politics). Androgyny is the term Jung used for those who have fully developed both the masculine and feminine aspects of their personality.

6. Mother Archetype: From all cultures. Can be elicited in response to any "mothering "figure (real mother, stepmother,etc.) Symbolically seen as divine mother (virgin Mary), mother nature, mother church, alma mater, etc.

7. Trickster or Magical Archetype: Seen in many mythologies as mystical figures who are half human, half animal, and are fond of pranks and sly jokes.

8. Hero Archetype: In all societies, the hero (as opposed to the demon) slays the dragon or monster, suffers punishment for others, and rescues the vanquished and the downtrodden.

9. Archetype of "The Way": Life is seen in many cultures as a step-by step experience. The 8 steps to Nirvana; Christ: "I am the Way", holy pilgrimages, even drug trips.

10. Archetype of Rebirth: Long before Christianity, the ancient Greek cults baptized members to be "born again". Also, concept of reincarnation, seasons (in Spring, life comes from death).

11. Archetype of the Wise Old Man: Unfortunately, this archetype has lost much of its power in Western civilization. Prime example is King Solomon. However, should balance with he archetype of the fool. Jung once responded to one of his students who was talking about wisdom by saying "I am also an old fool... and have written a lot of nonsense".

Concluding comment: George Lucas was a close personal friend of Joseph Campbell who was a leading authority on mythology. Together, they created the Star Wars trilogy. Much of the symbolism of the movie was constructed following Jungian themes. Archetypical symbols seen in the films include

Lucas Skywalker - Hero

Obe Wan Kenobe - Good Father

Darth Vader - shadow ("dark side of the force")

Princess Leigh - Virgin

Yoda - wise old man

12. Recent research evidence relating to the possible existence of archetypes.

a. Ethology - "innate releasing mechanisms

b. Species-specific defense reactions

c. "preparedness"

E. Attitudes of the psyche: These are basic ways of relating to the world. They are probably genetic and relatively hard to change.

1. Introversion: psychic energy flows inward and tends to be concentrated on subjective factors and inner responses.

ego <-------- object

a. Tend to be quiet, imaginative, and interested in ideas.

b. Seeks harmony with the inner world - philosophy and religion

c. Famous introverts:

(1) Adler - feelings of inferiority

(2) Plato, Kant - discussions of "mind"

(3) Jung - concept of self as "balance"

2. Extraversion: psychic energy flows outward and is directed toward people, events, and things in the external world.

ego --------> object

a. Tend to be sociable, outgoing, and interested in people and things.

b. Seeks harmony with external world - physical and biological sciences

c. Famous extraverts:

(1) Darwin - survival of the fittest

(2) Freud - in conflict with society, sex

3. Comments:

a. Introversion and extraversion are opposites. If introversion is dominant, extraversion is unconscious and poorly developed.

b. Extravert and introverts don't understand each other.

(1) Es view Is as dull and boring, cowards who are too chicken to really enjoy the world and all it has to offer.

(2) Is view Es as used car salesmen who are sleazy, shallow, cocky, and insensitive.

c. Es have an advantage the first half of life (conquer external world), Is have advantage during the second half (questions of meaning).

F. Functions of thought: How the person deals with information from the world.

1. Thinking: Tells what a thing is, gives names, categories to things (true, false), defines alternatives, and reasons objectively.

2. Feeling: Is basically evaluative; tells whether something is good/bad; acceptable/unacceptable; like/dislike. Do not confuse with emotion. Essential notion: Is the object of value?

3. Sensing: Tells you what exists; detects the presence of things. Does not evaluate. Is interested in facts and objects in the objective world; focus is on the trees.

4. Intuition: Uses hunches, sees possibilities, sees around corners and goes beyond the facts; focus in on the forest.

The four functions are grouped together as two opposing pairs. Thinking and feeling are called "Rational Functions", because they make judgements and evaluations - use reason and logic - in the evaluation of the external world. Sensing and Intuition are called "Irrational Functions", because they seem to go beyond reason and logic and represent a direct linkage to the external world. The pairing can be seen below.

tells what is (labels)
Thinking

Sensing_______________________________________Intuition

Feeling
  tells what it is worth

The four functions, when combined with extraversion/introversion, yield eight possible combinations which will constitute the periphery of personality.

Development

Jung does not emphasize infantile sexuality or a stage approach. However, putting together Jung's writings and the writings of some of his followers, we can present an schema that emphasizes four seasons of life. As in the seasons of the calendar year, each stage represents a death to the previous season and a new life to the current season.

I. Childhood: Death is the womb (You did not ask to be born). Here the unconscious dominates. This is the Spring of Life - a new beginning. Robert Bly says that children have a 3600 personality. They are not innocent or "good", but they are balanced and not phoney. You have to learn to be out-of-balance and to lie and pretend to be what you are not.

A. Presexual Period (birth --> 3-5). Here the attitudes (extraversion/introversion) appear. This is a period of nutrition and growth. No real problems here because serious problems are not yet in consciousness.

B. Prepubital Period (3-5 --> puberty). Here the functions (think/feel; sense/intuit) appear. The sex instinct emerges, consciousness expands, and formal education begins. Still relatively carefree, because you are still so heavily dependent on parents, although parents can begin to force children to use functions that are not their natural functions.

II. Youth: Death is childhood (things of childhood no longer interest you). Here the persona dominates. This is the summer of life where the extravert has a slight advantage, because the focus is on the external world.

A. Adolescence: This is the true psychic birth, because it is the first time one can really be out of balance. Your parents can start this unbalance by forcing you to develop your unnatural attitude and functions. For example what happens to a feeler in an intellectually (think) ambitious family? Here you begin to form your self image. The conscious part of all opposite pairs stays in the persona, the rejected part goes into the shadow. Some opposites you will struggle with:

verbal vs action oriented controlled vs impulsive

passive vs aggressive warm vs cold

intellectual vs emotional loud vs quiet

rough vs gentle frugal vs restrained

B. Young Adulthood: Here you begin the process of separation from the family of origin. Your personality and work can become fused ("inflated persona"). The focus here is on the external world of job, family, children, etc., so extraverts have an edge.

` "Just as the sun going up spreads light over a big area, then decreases to only light itself on the horizon, so it is with men."

... "Whoever carries over into the afternoon the law of the morning... must pay for doing so with damage to his or her soul".

III. Middle Life (40 --> 60-65): Death is youth (bar scenes less attractive). Here the process of the integration of the shadow dominates. This is the Fall of life. Introverts have a slight edge here because of the heavy introspection.

A. Major changes in physical and psychological life.

1. Physical Change: Physical abilities increase until around the age of 26 or so and then start to decline. Around 40 is when you really start to notice the aches and pains of aging. Can't do a lot of things you were able to do in the past.

2. Psychological Change: The first half of life was concerned with enlargening consciousness (with new knowledge, skills, etc.). In the second half you start to look inward to questions of meaning and spirituality. Here the kids are away, you have fewer social demands, and so you have time to reflect. This gives introverts a slight edge. Some of the changes in focus for the first vs the second half of life are presented below.

1st Half:				2nd Half:
ego		             	         self
conscious personality	                 unconscious personality
outer events			         inner events
achievements			         integration
doing				         being

B. Midlife Crisis: This comes when you are bored with material success and begin the process of making sense of your life. There are at least three possible solutions:

1. Denial - don't face the crisis. You might die at 40 although you won't be buried until 90.

2. Start all over - suddenly you discover the unconscious and proclaim that all your life up to now has been a lie. You sell your business and become an artist or a missionary. Sometimes OK, sometimes not.

3. Start the process of integrating the old life and the new life into an unified concept of self. This is when men start of soften up (retire, become gardeners) and women start to toughen up (start a business, go into politics).

IV. Old Age (60-65 --> Death). Death is middle age (with all its responsibilities). Here wisdom (self & spirituality) dominates. This is the winter of life when you prepare for the next great mystery.

A. Cultivate the archetype of the "Wise Old Man", but don't forget the archetype of the fool. What is so wrong with being able to just enjoy the presence of your grandchildren - even if you have trouble with their names. Here, you can become less involved with the details.

B. Favorite quote: "To the psychotherapist, an old man who cannot bid farewell to life appears as feeble and sickly as the young man who is afraid to embrace it".

Periphery of Personality

Jung discusses personality types comprised of combinations of the attitudes and functions. The most popular instrument used to measure Jung's types is the Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI). The MBTI measures 16 types, although Jung only specifically discussed 8 types. I will cover the 8 types discussed by Jung and leave a detailed explanation of the MBTI for graduate level classes. The MBTI is a very popular test. In 1986 it was given to 1.5 million people. Generally, it shows the following breakdowns:

Extravert - 70% Introvert - 30%

Sense - 70% Intuition - 30%

Think - 60% Feel - 40% - for males

Think - 40% Feel - 60% - for females

In discussing each of the 8 types, remember that no type is any "better" or "ideal" than any of the others. Also, remember that each type has it's opposite type which is called the "inferior function". The inferior function is undeveloped and unskilled. It can cause problems if one gets too out of balance.

I. Introversive-Rational Types

A. Introvert-Think - Theory builders

1. Key words: theoretical, intellectual, impractical

2. Absorbed with inner thoughts & ideas

3. Philosophers, theoretical scientists

4. Inferior function: extravert-feel - beware of romantic relationships ("Blue Angel")

B. Introvert-Feel - Seekers & keepers of human values

1. Key words: silent, stable, loyal

2. Outwardly cool, but have deep emotions. "Still waters run deep"; also "beware the wrath of a patient man"

3. Movie critics, editorial writers, artists

4. Inferior function: extrovert-think - beware of quick actions.

II. Extraversive-Rational Types

A. Extravert-Think - Commanders, organizers (Freud, Darwin here)

1. Key words: objective, orderly, factual

2. Values objective analysis, decisiveness, and closure.

Excellent planners; view world as an intellectual pursuit.

3. Research scientist, accountant, business executive

4. Inferior function: introvert-feel - beware of acting on emotional outbursts or fear.

B. Extravert-Feel - Harmonizers (many women here)

1. Key words: intense, sociable, gregarious

2. Attuned to social needs of others, loyal to friends and organizations.

3. Politicians, salesmen, preachers, charismatic leaders.

4. Inferior function: introvert-think - beware when these people attempt detailed analysis. Often these are very successful people who always feel stupid (and give lots of money to universities).

III. Introversive-Irrational Types

A. Introvert-Sense - Super-dependable

1. Key words: passive, calm, artistic

2. Have precise, rich internal perceptions and memory for detail.

3. Artists, writers, classical musicians

4. Inferior function: extravert-intuit - beware when they start impulsive predictions of the future.

B. Introvert-Intuit - Visionary/Prophet (Jung here)

1. Key words: mystic, dreamer, unique

2. Live in an intense inner world and are attuned to unconscious images. Often have trouble communicating their visions.

3. Prophets, mystics, spiritual leaders

4. Inferior function: extravert-sense - beware when these people try to excessively focus on external data. Don't hire them to do your taxes.

IV. Extraversive-Irrational Types

A. Extravert-Sense - Supreme realist (B.F. Skinner), "America's Pattern"

1. Key words: realistic, sensual, practical

2. Have an accurate awareness of the environment and are gifted problem solvers.

3. Astronauts ("right stuff"), engineers, cops, cooks

4. Inferior function: introvert-intuit - beware when they have grandiose visions (join cults).

B. Extravert-Intuit - Innovators, "Most exciting" pattern

1. Key words: visionary, changeable, creative

2. Focus on future visions; see new options and possibilities.

3. Inventors and entrepreneurs are often good at starting businesses, but lousy at running them.

4. Inferior function: Introvert-sense - beware when they withdraw and start to focus on their bodies.

Other "Goodies" on Jung

I. Classification of Therapies: Different types of therapies emphasize different skills and functions. For instance, extraverts might be attracted to group therapy, while introverts might prefer individual therapy. James Witzig has proposed the following classification of therapies based on the primary function upon which the therapy will focus.

A. Thinking Function

1. Emphasis is on informational/cognitive skills.

2. Psychoanalysis, Transactional Analysis (TA), Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET)

B. Intuition Function

1. Emphasis is on symbolic/intuitive skills

2. Jungian Analysis, Transcendental Meditation

C. Sense Function

1. Emphasis is on Sensory/experiential skills

2. Gestalt psychotherapy, behavior modification

D. Feeling Function

1. Emphasis is on confrontational/conative skills

2. Encounter groups, psychodrama, client-centered therapy.

II. Chess Players

A. Chess players have always been a little nutty. After winning a world championship, many went into hiding and were never heard from again. As a matter of fact, the World Chess Federation finally had to establish a rule that the world title had to be defended every three years to keep the championship alive. The last famous tournament was in 1972 when American Bobby Fisher beat Russian Boris Spassky. Fisher than became a recluse and in 1975 lost his title by default.

B. A research project reported in 1984 Psychology Today gave the MBTI to 140 United States Chess Federation Players. They found that introverts, and particularly, introvert-intuitive were overrepresented among master-level players.